Independent clause

An independent clause (or main clause) is a clause that can stand by itself as a simple sentence. An independent clause contains a subject and a predicate and makes sense with another word(s).

Independent clauses can be joined by using a semicolon or by using a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet)

Examples

In the following example sentence, independent clauses are in italic, and conjunctions are in bold. Single independent clauses:

• I have enough money to buy an ice cream cone.
• My favourite flavour is chocolate.

Multiple independent clauses:

• I have enough money to buy an ice cream cone**;** my favourite flavour is chocolate.
• I have enough money to buy an ice cream cone, so let's go to the shop.

Subject–auxiliary Inversion

Subject–auxiliary inversion involves placing the subject after a finite auxiliary verb, rather than before it as is the case in typical declarative sentences (the canonical word order of English being subject–verb–object).

Note that forms of the verb be are included regardless of whether or not they function as auxiliaries in the sense of governing another verb form.

A typical example of subject–auxiliary inversion is given below.

• Sam has read the paper. - Statement
• Has Sam read the paper? - Yes–no question formed using inversion

Here the subject is Sam, and the verb has is an auxiliary. In the question, these two elements change places (invert). If the sentence does not have an auxiliary verb, this type of simple inversion is not possible. Instead, an auxiliary must be introduced into the sentence in order to allow inversion:

• Sam enjoys the paper. - Statement with the non-auxiliary verb enjoys
• *Enjoys Sam the paper? - This is idiomatically incorrect; simple inversion with this type of verb is considered archaic
• Does Sam enjoy the paper? - The sentence formulated with the auxiliary does now allows inversion. For details of the use of do, did and does for this and similar purposes.

For exceptions to the principle that the inverted verb must be an auxiliary, see below.

It is also possible for the subject to invert with a negative contraction (can't, isn't, etc.). For example:

• He isn't nice.
• Isn't he nice? - The subject he inverts with the negated auxiliary contraction isn't.

Compare this with the uncontracted form Is he not nice? and the archaic Is not he nice?.

Subject–verb Inversion in English

Subject–verb inversion in English is a type of inversion where the subject and verb (or chain of verbs, verb catena) switch their canonical order of appearance, so that the subject follows the verb(s), e.. A lamp stood beside the bed → Beside the bed stood a lamp. Subject–verb inversion is distinct from subject–auxiliary inversion because the verb involved is not an auxiliary verb.

Dependent Clause

A dependent clause is a clause that provides a sentence element with additional information, but which cannot stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause can either modify an adjacent clause or serve as a component of an independent clause. Some grammarians use the term subordinate clause to refer only to adverbial dependent clauses.

The different types of dependent clauses include content clauses (noun clauses), relative (adjectival) clauses, and adverbial clauses.

In Indo-European languages, a dependent clause usually begins with a dependent word. One kind of dependent word is a subordinating conjunction. Subordinating conjunctions are used to begin dependent clauses known as adverbial clauses, which serve as adverbs.

In the following examples, the adverbial clauses are bold and the subordinating conjunctions are italicized:

• Wherever she goes, she leaves her luggage (The adverbial clause wherever she goes modifies the verb leaves.)
• Bob enjoyed the movie more than I did. (The adverbial clause than I did modifies the adverb more.)

A subordinating conjunction can also introduce a noun clause:

• I know that he likes me. (The noun clause that he likes me serves as the object of the main-clause verb know.)

Another type of dependent word is the relative pronoun. Relative pronouns begin dependent clauses known as relative clauses; these are adjective clauses, because they modify nouns. In the following example, the relative clause is bold and the relative pronoun is italicized:

• The only one of the seven dwarfs who does not have a beard is Dopey. (The adjective clause who does not have a beard describes the pronoun one.)

A relative adverb plays the part of an adverb in a relative clause, as in

• That is the reason why I came. (The relative clause why I came describes the noun reason, and within the relative clause the adverb why modifies the verb came.)
• That is the place where he lives. (The relative clause where he lives describes the noun place, and within the relative clause the adverb where modifies the verb lives.)

An interrogative word can serve as an adverb in a noun clause, as in

• No one understands why you need experience. (The noun clause why you need experience functions as the direct object of the main-clause verb "understands", and within the noun clause why serves as an adverb modifying need.)

Complex Sentence

A complex sentence has one or more dependent clauses (also called subordinate clauses). Since a dependent clause cannot stand on its own as a sentence, complex sentences must also have at least one independent clause. In short, a sentence with one or more dependent clauses and at least one independent clause is a complex sentence.

A sentence with two or more independent clauses plus one or more dependent clauses is called compound-complex or complex-compound.

In addition to a subject and a verb, dependent clauses contain a subordinating conjunction or similar word. There are a large number of subordinating conjunctions in English. Some of these give the clause an adverbial function, specifying time, place, or manner. Such clauses are called adverbial clauses.

When I stepped out into the bright sunlight, from the darkness of the movie house, I had only two things on my mind. (S. E. Hinton, The Outsiders))
This complex sentence contains an adverbial clause, When I stepped out into the bright sunlight from the darkness of the movie house. The adverbial clause describes when the action of the main clause, I had only two things on my mind, took place. A relative clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or noun phrase in the independent clause. In other words, the relative clause functions similar to an adjective.

• Let him who has been deceived complain. (Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote)
• You, who have never known your family, see them standing around you. (J.K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone)

A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions like a noun.

In the first example, the restrictive relative clause who has been deceived specifies or defines the meaning of him in the independent clause, Let him complain.

In the second example, the non-restrictive relative clause who have never known your family describes you in the independent clause, You see them standing around you.

A noun clause may function as the subject of a clause, or as a predicate nominative or an object.
What she had realised was that love was that moment when your heart was about to burst. (Stieg Larsson, The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo)
In this sentence the independent clause contains two noun clauses.
The noun clause What she had realized serves as the subject of the verb was, and that love was that moment serves as complement. The sentence also contains a relative clause, when your heart was about to burst.

B2 | Upper Intermediate

B2, or Upper Intermediate, is the fourth level on the CEFR scale. It marks the point where you move from "getting by" to genuinely comfortable communication — handling complex topics, expressing nuanced opinions, and understanding most of what you read or hear in real-world contexts.

What a B2 user can do

At this level, you're expected to:

• Understand complex texts on both concrete and abstract topics, including technical discussions in your own field.
• Follow extended speech and lectures, even when the structure isn't entirely clear, as long as the topic is reasonably familiar.
• Interact fluently and spontaneously enough that conversations with native speakers flow naturally — without strain on either side.
• Produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects, using connectors and cohesive devices to build well-structured arguments.
• Explain and defend a viewpoint on a topical issue, weighing the advantages and disadvantages of different options.
• Recognize implicit meaning — reading between the lines in demanding, longer texts.

What B2 grammar looks like in practice

B2 is where grammar stops being about isolated rules and starts being about flexibility and precision. You're expected to control structures like:

• Advanced conditionals and mixed conditionals — moving beyond simple if-clauses to express hypothetical and counterfactual meaning.
• Passive voice in varied tenses and contexts, not just present and past simple.
• Reported speech with correct sequence of tenses, including backshifting and reporting verbs.
• Participle clauses and the distinction between participles and gerunds.
• Comparative and superlative structures beyond basic -er/-est, including double comparatives and qualifying expressions.

Errors still happen at B2, but they rarely cause misunderstanding. The goal is controlled, flexible use of language across social, academic, and professional settings.

How B2 fits in the CEFR progression

B2 builds directly on the foundations of B1 (Intermediate) and prepares you for C1 (Advanced). Many university entrance exams, professional certifications, and immigration requirements target B2 as the minimum standard.

Self-check: If you can read a newspaper editorial, follow most of a TED talk without subtitles, and write a clear essay arguing a position — you're likely operating at B2.

Ready to test yourself? Try Is your English level B2/Upper Intermediate? or practise specific B2 grammar with challenges like Basics. Advanced Conditionals And "wish", Basics. Passive Voice, and Sequence of Tenses in Indirect Speech.

Difficulty: Medium

Medium difficulty. Difficulty levels represent author's opinion about how hard a question or challenge is.