Relative Clause

A relative clause is a kind of subordinate clause that contains the element whose interpretation is provided by an antecedent on which the subordinate clause is grammatically dependent; that is, there is an anaphoric relation between the relativized element in the relative clause and antecedent on which it depends.

Typically, a relative clause modifies a noun or noun phrase, and uses some grammatical device to indicate that one of the arguments within the relative clause has the same referent as that noun or noun phrase. For example, in the sentence *I met a man who wasn't there*, the subordinate clause who wasn't there is a relative clause, since it modifies the noun man, and uses the pronoun who to indicate that the same "man" is referred to within the subordinate clause (in this case, as its subject).

In many European languages, relative clauses are introduced by a special class of pronouns called relative pronouns, such as who in the example just given.

Restrictive and Non-restrictive

Bound relative clauses may or may not be restrictive. Whereas a non-restrictive or non-defining relative clause merely provides supplementary information, a restrictive or defining relative clause modifies the meaning of its head word (restricts its possible referent).

For example:

• *The man who lives in this house has not been seen for days*. This (*who lives in this house*) is a restrictive relative clause, modifying the meaning of man, and essential to the sentence (if the clause were omitted, it would no longer be known which man is being referred to). If the bold part is deleted the remaining part does not provide the sense.
• The mayor, who lives in this house, has not been seen for days. This is a non-restrictive relative clause, since it provides supplementary information about the mayor, but is not essential to the sentence – if the clause were omitted, it would still be known which mayor is meant. If the bold part is deleted the remaining part provides the sense. In speaking it is natural to make slight pauses around non-restrictive clauses, and in English this is shown in writing by commas (as in the examples).

Another difference in English is that only restrictive relative clauses may be introduced with that or use the "zero" relative pronoun. In colloquial speech, a non-restrictive relative clause may have a whole sentence as its antecedent rather than a specific noun phrase; for example:

• *The cat was allowed on the bed, which annoyed the dog*.

Here, the context of the sentence (presumably) indicates that which refers not to the bed or the cat but to the entire proposition expressed in the main clause, namely the circumstance that the cat was allowed on the bed. Such constructions are discouraged in formal usage and in texts written for nonnative speakers because of the potential for ambiguity in parsing; a construction more accepted in formal usage would be The cat's being [or having been] allowed on the bed annoyed the dog.

Finite and Non-Finite

Relative clauses may be either finite clauses (as in the examples above) or non-finite clauses. An example of a non-finite relative clause in English is the infinitive clause on whom to rely, in the sentence "She is the person on whom to rely".

Relative Clauses in English

In English, a relative clause follows the noun it modifies. It is generally indicated by a relative pronoun at the start of the clause, although sometimes simply by word order. If the relative pronoun is the object of the verb in the relative clause, it comes at the beginning of the clause even though it would come at the end of an independent clause ("He is the man whom I saw", not "He is the man I saw whom"). The choice of relative pronoun can be affected by whether the clause modifies a human or non-human noun, by whether the clause is restrictive or not, and by the role (subject, direct object, or the like) of the relative pronoun in the relative clause.

• For a human antecedent, "who", "whom", or "that" is usually used ("He is the person who saw me", "He is the person whom I saw", "He is the person that I saw"). For a non-human antecedent, only "that" or "which" is used.
• For a non-human antecedent in a non-restrictive clause, only "which" is used ("The tree, which fell, is over there"); while either "which" or "that" may be used in a restrictive clause ("The tree which fell is over there", "The tree that fell is over there")—but some styles and prescriptive grammars require the use of "that" in the restrictive context.
• Of the relative pronoun pair "who" and "whom", the subjective case form ("who") is used if it is the subject of the relative clause ("He is the policeman who saw me"); and, in formal usage, the objective case form ("whom") if it is the object of the verb or preposition in the relative clause ("He is the policeman whom I saw", "He is the policeman whom I talked to", "He is the policeman to whom I talked"); but in informal usage "whom" is often replaced by "who".

In English, non-restrictive relative clauses are set off with commas, but restrictive ones are not:

• "I met a man and a woman yesterday. The woman, who had a thick French accent, was very pretty." (non-restrictive—does not narrow down who is being talked about)
• "I met two women yesterday, one with a thick French accent and one with a mild Italian one. The woman who had the thick French accent was very pretty." (restrictive—adds information about who is being referred to)The status of "that" as a relative pronoun is not universally agreed.

Clause

A clause is a grammatical unit built around a verb that typically contains a subject and a predicate. Understanding clauses is essential because they are the core building blocks of every sentence you read, write, or speak.

What makes a clause?

At minimum, a clause needs a verb (the predicate) and, in most cases, a subject — the person or thing the verb says something about. The predicate can also include objects, complements, and modifiers.

• She laughed. — subject (she) + verb (laughed)
• The manager approved the budget yesterday. — subject + verb + object + modifier

Sometimes the subject is left out. This happens regularly in imperative sentences and non-finite clauses:

• Sit down. — no visible subject, but "you" is understood
• Walking home, I noticed the shop was closed. — the -ing clause has no stated subject

Types of clauses

There are two main types:

• Independent clause (also called a main clause) — can stand on its own as a complete sentence. It contains a finite verb.

  • I missed the bus.

• Dependent clause (also called a subordinate clause) — cannot stand alone and needs an independent clause to make sense.

  • Because I overslept — incomplete on its own

Combine them and you get a complex sentence:

• I missed the bus because I overslept.

A simple sentence has one independent clause. More complex sentences combine independent and dependent clauses in various ways.

Quick check: If you can remove a group of words from a sentence and it still has a subject + finite verb and makes sense on its own, that group is likely an independent clause.

Why clauses matter

Recognizing clause boundaries helps you punctuate correctly, avoid run-on sentences, and build more varied, natural-sounding writing. Once you can spot where one clause ends and another begins, sentence structure becomes much easier to manage.

Ready to practice? Try Complex Sentence for the basics, then move on to Complex Sentence: Adverbials or Participle Clauses: Shortening Sentences with -ing and Having + Past Participle to deepen your skills.

Punctuation

Punctuation in the English language helps the reader to understand a sentence through visual means other than just the letters of the alphabet. English punctuation has always had two complementary aspects: on the one hand, phonological punctuation linked to how the sentence can be read aloud, particularly to pausing; and on the other hand, grammatical punctuation linked to the structure of the sentence. In popular discussion of language, incorrect punctuation is often seen as an indication of lack of education and of a decline of standards.

Comma

The comma is a punctuation mark that appears in several variants in different languages. It has the same shape as an apostrophe ( ' ) or single closing quotation mark in many typefaces, but it differs from them in being placed on the baseline of the text. Some typefaces render it as a small line, slightly curved or straight but inclined from the vertical, or with the appearance of a small, filled-in.

The comma is used in many contexts and languages, mainly for separating parts of a sentence such as clauses, and items in lists, particularly when there are three or more items listed. The word comma comes from the Greek, which originally meant a cut-off piece; specifically, in grammar, a short clause.

B1 | Intermediate

B1 is the intermediate level of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). It marks the point where you move beyond survival English and start expressing yourself with real independence — describing experiences, explaining opinions, and handling everyday situations without a script.

What a B1 user can do

At this level, you're expected to:

• Understand the main points of clear, standard speech and writing on familiar topics — work, school, travel, hobbies.
• Handle most travel situations in English-speaking environments.
• Produce simple connected text on topics you know or care about.
• Describe experiences, events, hopes, and plans, and give brief reasons and explanations for your opinions.
• Communicate in routine tasks that require a straightforward exchange of information.

What B1 grammar looks like

B1 is where grammar starts to get more layered. You're not just forming basic sentences anymore — you're combining ideas, using different tenses with more precision, and starting to handle structures like the passive voice, modal verbs for necessity and possibility, and gerunds vs. infinitives. You're also expected to build complex sentences with linking words and dependent clauses.

Typical B1 grammar areas include:

• Future tenses — distinguishing will, going to, and the present continuous for future plans
• Passive voice — The report was written yesterday.
• Modal verbs — You should apply early. / She might be late.
• Used to — I used to live in Berlin.
• Verb patterns — knowing whether a verb takes a gerund, an infinitive, or both (I enjoy reading vs. I decided to leave)

What B1 doesn't mean

B1 speakers still hesitate, make grammatical errors, and sometimes struggle with less familiar topics. That's normal. The key difference from A2 is that you can keep a conversation going and get your point across even when things aren't perfect. The step up to B2 involves handling more abstract topics, understanding nuance, and producing more complex, accurate language.

Self-check: Can you tell a friend about a recent trip — what happened, what you liked, and what you'd do differently — without switching to your native language? If yes, you're likely operating at B1 or above.

Ready to find out where you stand? Try Are you B1/Intermediate? Test your English CEFR Level to figure out!, then build your skills with challenges like Basics. Passive Voice, Basics. Modal verbs, and Used to.

Difficulty: Medium

Medium difficulty. Difficulty levels represent author's opinion about how hard a question or challenge is.